Contributors: Rev. Dr. Melanie Miller. Ms. Rhonda Cardwell, Ms. Marrea Evans, Ms. Carolyn Jacobs for Nazarene A.M.E. Zion Church, Mrs. Barbara Lynch Johnson, Rev. Janet Jones, Ms. Linda McRae, Mrs. Tangia Douglas Milsap, Ms. Cynthia Owens, Mr. Joshua P. Russell, and Mrs. Anna Shuford
On November 11, 1918, a ceasefire agreement between the Allied Powers and Germany at Compiégne, France, was signed at 11:00 a.m., bringing World War I, also known as the Great War, to an end[i]. Two years later, unidentified soldiers were buried at Westminster Abbey in London and the Arc de Triomphe in Paris.[ii] A year later, an unknown American soldier killed in World War II was buried at Arlington National Cemetery near Washington, D.C. On June 4, 1926, Congress passed a resolution that this reoccurring date, November 11, would be commemorated annually in recognition of the treaty executed in 1918. That date was observed as Armistice Day until 1938, when it became a federal holiday in the United States called Veteran’s Day. Congress intended this day to be a day of “thanksgiving and prayer, and exercises designed to perpetuate peace through good will and mutual understanding between nations.”[iv]
The service of Black people in the United States Armed Forces began decades before that horrific day in 1919, when thousands of lives were lost before the peace agreement was penned, and more would die days after the ink had dried. Black people served as early as the Revolutionary War, some while enslaved. Many unknown members of The African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church served as early as the Civil War, some as newly freed slaves. Though they served as bravely as the White service members, many served as unknown soldiers, though not buried in a tomb or laid to rest in a six-foot grave. Often, their service was dismissed, unacknowledged, sometimes denied, ignored, and usually not compensated as their White counterparts. Many history books have omitted them, and their service is rendered invisible, and their identity as Blacks or individual service members went unknown.
Many Black Americans carried out heroic acts and dedicated themselves to the cause of freedom. Yet, due to bigotry, discrimination, segregation, and sometimes even violence, whatever the racist thoughts, actions, policies, and practices at the time, those veterans’ Black bodies were deemed unworthy to serve for the cause of freedom, fight alongside white soldiers, or to wear the military uniform. For a long time, this treatment has caused cultural mistrust between the Black community and the United States Armed Forces.
Stories like that of Sgt. Isaac Woodard is a prime example of the treatment and challenges Black servicemembers and veterans faced. Sgt. Woodard served in the United States Army for over three years in the Pacific Islands during World War II.[v] He received several awards for his service and an Honorable Discharge in February 1946. As a proud soldier, Sgt. Woodard chose to wear his uniform as he traveled home to North Carolina by bus after his discharge. He asked the bus driver to stop so that he could use the restroom. The driver denied his request and hurled a racist verbal assault against him, including calling him "boy. Sgt. Woodard demanded that the driver treat him with the dignity and respect he was entitled to. At a stop in Batesburg, South Carolina, the driver called the local police, who arrested Sgt. Woodard. Led by police chief Lynwood Shull, the police brutally beat him and deliberately blinded him while in their custody. Sgt. Woodard’s treatment was not only an act carried out against a Black service member in uniform but reflected the violent oppression of Blacks in the South. His case was the impetus for civil rights litigation across the nation. On September 19, 1946, a delegation of civil rights leaders led by Walter White, the Executive Director of the NAACP, briefed President Harry S. Truman on the racial violence, ongoing discrimination, and continued mistreatment that Black military personnel faced not only while serving in the military but also when they returned home.[vi] Though Sgt. Woodard's case was the focus of the brief, the high number of unjust convictions by court-martial of Black Soldiers, the requirement to develop Black flight surgeons to support and care for the famous Tuskegee Airmen because White flight surgeons would not, and the blatant disrespect of Black officers was a part of the dialog. President Truman expressed that he was unaware that things were as terrible as they had reported and that something needed to change this.
President Truman signed Executive Order 9981 on July 26, 1948, which integrated the United States Armed Forces. Though discrimination continued despite the Order, it declared to the nation and the world that there would be equality of treatment and opportunity for all individuals in the Armed Forces, regardless of race, color, religion, or national origin. The NAACP, led by Executive Secretary Walter White and A. Philip Randolph, served on the frontlines of the campaign to fight discrimination in the military backed by the Order. The passing of Executive Order 9981 and its campaign reflects the determination of a nation to move the service of Black Soldiers, Sailors, Marines, Airmen, and Coast Guardians from unknown to valued protectors of our country. Interestingly, the signing of Executive Order 9981 precedes any federal actions during the civil rights era to address and counteract discrimination against Black Americans and other people of color.
July 26, 2023, commemorates the 75th Anniversary of Executive Order 9981. The NAACP President and C.E.O. Derrick Johnson released the following statement in remembrance of the momentous occasion:
"Today, we commemorate the Association's decades-long commitment to veterans' rights and the realization of racial equality in all aspects of life. The signing of Executive Order 9981 marked a major milestone in the progress of our nation, creating a path forward for just treatment and recognition of Black members of service. Representation within our armed forces continues to have a profound significance in affirming the importance of diversity and fostering an environment that reflects the ideals of a more inclusive and equitable society.”
Despite the historical and cultural challenges Black service members have encountered throughout the years, The A.M.E. Zion Church members continue to enlist or become commissioned officers in the United States Army, Air Force, Coast Guard, Marine Corps, Navy, and National Guard. Initiatives like Executive Order 9981 and the hard work and dedication of those committed to the cause of recognizing all of God’s creation with dignity, respect, and recognition that even though their name was unknown, their service would leave an indelible mark on the cause for freedom for all Americans.
Notable members of The A.M.E. Zion Church who served in the United States Armed Forces include,
Rev. Dr. Myrtle Bowen, Colonel, Retired served in the United States Air National Guard. She is the first African-American woman Chaplain promoted to the rank of Colonel. She is the Presiding Elder of the Harrisburg District of the Philadelphia-Baltimore Conference of the Mid-Atlantic Episcopal District.
Rev. Dr. Kenneth Crowder, Lieutenant, served in the United States Navy and received an Honorable Discharge. He is the Presiding Elder of the Norfolk District of the Virginia Conference of the Mid-Atlantic Episcopal District.
The late Rev. Joseph A. Davis, Colonel Retired, joined the United States Army in 1953. As a Chaplain, he cared for Soldiers and their families in Germany, Korea, and Vietnam during the Vietnam War. Rev. Davis was an ordained elder in The A.M.E. Zion Church and retired as a Presiding Elder. He was a member of Galbraith A.M.E. Zion Church, Philadelphia-Baltimore Conference of the Mid-Atlantic Episcopal District.
The late Bishop Louis Hunter, Sr., Specialist, served in the United States Army with the 101st Airborne on the frontlines of the Vietnam War. He was elected the 93rd Bishop in the line of succession. He was a member of Shaw Temple A.M.E. Zion Church, Smyrna, GA, Georgia Conference of the South Atlantic Episcopal District.
Rev. Dr. Vergel T. Lattimore, Brigadier General, Retired, United States Air Force and Air National Guard. He is the first Black Chaplain to attain the rank of Brigadier General. He is the President of Hood Theological Seminary, Salisbury, NC.
Rev. Dr. Lorenza Meekins, Major, Retired, served in the United States Air Force and retired with an Honorable Discharge after 16 years of service. He is the Pastor of Hood Temple A.M.E. Zion Church, Richmond, VA, Petersburg District, Virginia Conference of the Mid-Atlantic Episcopal District.
Rev. Dr. Stephen Pogue, Airman, enlisted in the United States Air Force in 1984. He is the Pastor of Greater Centennial A.M.E. Zion Church, Mount Vernon, NY, New York City District, New York Conference of the North Eastern Episcopal District.
Rev. Eli Smith served as a Chaplain in the United States Army and received an Honorable Discharge for his service. He is the Pastor of Metropolitan A.M.E. Zion Church, Jersey City, NJ, Jersey City District, New Jersey Conference of the North Eastern Episcopal District.
The late Ms. Harriet Tubman, Specialist, served in the United States Army as a nurse, spy, and scout during the Civil War. Her most notable accomplishment during military service was commanding over 300 soldiers and navigating three-gun boats up the Combahee River to free over 750 enslaved people. She served valiantly in her civilian life as an abolitionist and conductor on the Underground Railroad. She was a member at Thompson Memorial A.M.E. Zion Church, Auburn, NY, now known as Harriet Tubman A.M.E. Zion Church, Western New York Conference of the North Eastern Episcopal District.
The following veterans are receiving additional honor at the request of their families or friends.
Rev. Alonzo Braggs, Staff Sergeant (Retired), served 20 years in the United States Army in the Communications Electronics Signal Corps. He received an Honorable Discharge upon retirement. His deployments include Somalia, Haiti, Panama, and Honduras. Assignments include Germany, Korea, Fort Liberty, and Fort Eisenhower. The Army awarded him the German rifle marksmanship medal, 18th Airborne (A.B.N.) Corps Soldier of the Year and the Meritorious Service Award. He pastors Peoples A.M.E. Zion Church of the Los Angeles District, Southwest Rocky Mountain in the Western Episcopal District.
Mr. Nathaniel Briggs, Sergeant, Specialist Fifth Class, was drafted into the United States Army in 1968, shortly after completing high school in Bronx, NY. He completed boot camp at Fort Jackson, SC, and was shipped off to fight in the Vietnam War. Upon discharge from the Army, Mr. Briggs joined the New Jersey National Guard for an additional 13 years, where he attained the rank of Sergeant. He received an Honorable Discharge. He was employed with Ford Motor Company for 32 years. He is an active member of the Bergen County, NJ, Branch of the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People), where he has served as President and now as the Chairperson of the Veteran's Affairs Committee for New Jersey. His parents initiated the Brown v Board of Education school desegregation lawsuit in Clarendon County, SC. He is the founder of the Veterans of Faith Ministry at Varick Memorial A.M.E. Zion Church, Hackensack, NJ, where he is a proud member. Varick Memorial is in the Jersey City District, New Jersey Conference of the North Eastern Episcopal District.
Mr. Ronald Crapp, Sergeant, E5, served in the United States Marine Corps as a Motor Transportation, Logistics Vehicle System (L.V.S.) Operator from October 1993 to October 2003. He received an Honorable Discharge. His awards include the Good Conduct Medal, Sea Service Medal, and National Defense Service Ribbon. He is a member of St. Julia A.M.E. Zion Church, Jacksonville, NC, Central North Carolina Conference, Eastern North Carolina Episcopal District,
Mr. Joe Louis Cromartie, Master Sergeant E-8, served in the United States Army as a 92A50 Logistics Quarter Master. He retired with an Honorable Discharge. His awards include the Meritorious Service Medal, three Army Commendation (ARCOM) Medals, two Army Achievement (A.A.M.) Medals, three Professional Development awards, the Overseas Medal, and seven Good Conduct Medals. He is a member of Evans Metropolitan A.M.E. Zion Church, Fayetteville, NC, Central North Carolina Conference of the Eastern North Carolina Episcopal District.
IN MEMORY OF Mr. Banks Douglas, Sergeant, Technician E5. Mr. Douglas served in the United States Army during World War II (WWII) from July 1944 through June 1946. He served with the 3758th Quarter Master (QM) Truck Company as an Automotive Mechanic and Truck Driver. He received an Honorable Discharge for his service. His awards include the Good Conduct Medal, American Campaign Medal, European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal, World War II Victory Medal, Army of Occupation Medal and Germany Clasp, Honorable Service Lapel Button WWII, Sharpshooter Badge with Rifle Bar, and the Marksman Badge with Machine Gun Bar. He was a member of Cameron Grove A.M.E. Zion Church, Central North Carolina Conference of the Eastern North Carolina Episcopal District.
Ms. Tangia Douglas, Corporal, Specialist Fourth Class, served as an Ammunition Specialist in the United States Army, Women’s Army Corps (W.A.C.) from October 1975 through October 1978. She received an Honorable Discharge. Her awards include the M 16-Marksman Rifle Badge, Good Conduct Medal, Overseas Service Medal, and the Women In Military Service For America Memorial Silver Dollar. She is a member of Cameron Grove A.M.E. Zion Church, Central North Carolina Conference of the Eastern North Carolina Episcopal District.
Rev. Dr. John Givens, First Sergeant, joined the United States Army shortly after graduating high school and retired Honorably after 27 years of service. After attaining the rank of First Sergeant, he was an instructor and manager for the 411th Chemical Company for over nine years. Among his many awards, he received the Army Commendation Medal (ARCOM) for Meritorious Service. His duty stations took him around the world to Europe, Japan, and Korea. After his retirement, his entrepreneurial heart opened one of the few Black-owned car dealerships in New Jersey. He is the Pastor of Shiloh A.M.E. Zion Church, Englewood, NJ, Jersey City District, New Jersey Conference of the North Eastern Episcopal District.
Rev. Dr. Denison D. Harrield, Jr., Captain, Intelligence Officer, upon graduation from Howard University, was commissioned as a 2nd Lieutenant in the United States Air Force. He served seven years during the Vietnam War, received a Meritorious Service Medal, and received an Honorable Discharge, having attained the rank of Captain in 1971. He worked for New York Telephone for 18 years. He preached his Trial Sermon in 1976 at St. Paul Church, when it was in Trenton, NJ. He served as Pastor of Antioch Church, Linden, from 1978 to 1989. In 1989, he left N.Y. Telephone to be the full-time Pastor of Wallace Chapel A.M.E. Zion Church, Summit, where he continues to serve. Wallace Chapel is in the Jersey City District of the N.J. Annual Conference of the North Eastern Episcopal District.
Rev. Kenneth P. Heyman, Sr., Corporal, Specialist First Class, served in the U.S. Army, attaining the rank of Specialist 4th class as a Combat Engineer. He completed orders at Fort Devens, Massachusetts, and the 23rd Engineer Battalion of the 3rd Armor Division, Hanu, Germany. He was Honorably Discharged in 1986 yet, while stationed in Germany, attended the Basic Noncommissioned Officer Course (BNCOC), a prerequisite for promotion to Sergeant. He is the Pastor of Shiloh A.M.E. Zion Church (Staten Island), NY, Jersey City District in New Jersey. Conference of the North Eastern Episcopal District.
Rev. Larry Ben Jacobs, Airman First Class, served in the United States Air Force Reserve from September 1980 through September 1983. He received an Honorable Discharge after faithful service. Rev. Jacobs serves as the Episcopal Director of the Men of Zion for the Alabama-Florida Episcopal District, Jackson District Men of Zion Director; and District & Conference Director for Project 100. He is the Pastor of Nazarene A. M. E. Zion Church, Citronelle, AL, in the West Alabama Conference of the Alabama Florida Episcopal District.
In Memory of Mr. Arbe Johnson, Private, February 2, 1924 – September 3, 1980. Mr. Johnson lived in Lower Peachtree, Alabama, until he joined the Army in 1942. He served as a Private in the United States Army during World War II from 1942 to 1945. and was Honorably Discharged in 1945. After leaving the Army, he moved to Mount Vernon, N.Y., and was a resident for 35 years. He was an upholsterer for G.B.C. Associates in Yonkers, New York. He was a member of Greater Centennial A.M.E. Zion Church, Mount Vernon, NY, New York City District, New York Conference of the North Eastern Episcopal District.
Mr. Willie Johnson Jr., First Lieutenant, served in the United States Army Signal Corps. He was assigned to the U.S. Army Signal School at Fort Monmouth, NJ, with the responsibility of training enlisted personnel in installing, maintaining, and repairing Signal Intelligence and Microwave Radio equipment. He was Honorably Discharged on June 10, 1966. He is a member of Shrewsbury Avenue A.M.E. Zion Church Red Bank, NJ, Camden District, New Jersey Conference of the North Eastern Episcopal District.
Rev. William E. Lawson, Staff Sergeant E6, served as a Race Relations Facilitator during the Vietnam War in the United States Air Force. He was commissioned to drive a 10-ton forty-foot trailer while in Vietnam. He received an Honorable discharge after eight years of dedicated service. He is the Pastor of St. Luke A.M.E. Zion Church, Linden, NJ, Jersey City District, in the New Jersey Conference of the North Eastern Episcopal District.
Mr. Glenn McCree, Sr., Technical Sergeant, enlisted in the United States Air Force from August 19, 1970, until August 31, 1974, during the Vietnam War Era. He attained the rank of Staff Sergeant before receiving an Honorable Discharge. He joined the United States Air Force Reserves in August 1976 as a Security Police Officer and separated from service in August of 1988. He is a member of Nazarene A. M. E. Zion Church, Citronelle, AL., where he serves faithfully on the Trustee Board, Steward Board and Men of Zion. Nazarene A.M.E. Zion Church is part of the West Alabama Conference of the Alabama-Florida Episcopal District.
Mr. Gary Millsap, Corporal, Specialist First Class, served in the United States Army as a Senior Ammunition Inspector. He retired with an Honorable Discharge after steadfast service during Operation Desert Shield and Desert Storm. For his faithful and devoted service, Mr. Gilsap received the following awards: Army Service Ribbon, National Defense Service Medal with a Bronze Star, four Overseas Service Ribbons, six-time recipient of the Army Good Conduct Medal, Army Commendation Medal with one Oak Leaf Cluster (O.L.C.), Army Achievement Medal with two O.L.C., three Noncommissioned Officer Professional Development Ribbons, Joint Service Achievement Medal, Parachutist Badge, two Southwest Asia Service Medal with a Bronze Service Star, Kuwait Liberation Medal-Saudi Arabia, and Driver Badge with Completion Bar. He is a member of St. Julia A.M.E. Zion Church, Central North Carolina Conference of the Eastern North Carolina Episcopal District.
Ms. Ivy Millsap, Lance Corporal, enlisted in the United States Marine Corps in February 1999 as an 1142 Generator Mechanic and licensed High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (HUMMWV) Driver. She was discharged honorably in October 2003 and then enlisted in the United States Navy as a Hospital Corpsman in 2004 and served until 2006. She again received an Honorable Discharge for her dedicated service. She was awarded the Good Conduct Medal, the National Defense Service Ribbon, the Navy Marksmanship Ribbon, and the USMC Expert Rifle Medal. She is a member of St. Julia A.M.E. Zion Church, Jacksonville, NC, Central Northern Carolina Conference of the Eastern North Carolina Episcopal District.
Rev. Jimmie Lewis Miller, Sr., Commander, Retired, enlisted in the United States Navy in 1983 as Airman/E3, Aerographer’s Mate. In 1987, he was selected for the Enlisted Commissioning Program, commissioned an Ensign, and chosen to attend Nuclear Propulsion Engineer School. He served as a Nuclear Power Submarine Officer aboard the U.S.S. Hammerhead and the U.S.S. James K. Polk. He was the Executive Officer aboard the U.S.S. Rhode Island, Gold Crew, St. Mary's, G.A. and culminated his Navy Career as the Commanding Officer of Navy Recruiting District Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA. He retired with an Honorable Discharge in 2010 after 27 years of loyal service. He is now the Operations Manager for the Navy Junior Recruit Officer Training Corps (NJROTC). He is a Supernumerary Minister at St. Paul A.M.E. Zion Church, Ewing, NJ, Camden District, New Jersey Conference of the North Eastern Episcopal District.
Rev. Dr. Melanie Miller, Lieutenant Commander, was commissioned Lieutenant Junior Grade and served as a Chaplain in the United States Navy in 2009. She served with the United States Marine Corps in Twentynine Palms at Marine Wing Support Squadron (MWSS) 373. Dr. Miller later joined the United States Navy Reserves in 2016. She served in Surface Pacific Forces, Navy Reserve Littoral Combat Support, and Navy Recruiting Command and was the first Chaplain Program Officer Recruiter for Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion. She was Honorably Discharged in July 2023. Her awards include the Navy and Marine Corps Commendation Medal, the Navy and Marine Corps Achievement Medal, and the U.S. Marine Corps Fleet Marine Force (F.M.F.) qualification pin. She is the pastor of St. Paul A.M.E. Zion Church, Ewing, NJ, Camden District, New Jersey Conference of the North Eastern Episcopal District.
Ms. Catherine Lorraine Morris Overby, Staff Sergeant, served in the United States Air Force for eight years. She trained at the 3743rd Women in the Air Force (W.A.F.) Training Center in San Antonio, Texas. She served faithfully in various administrative, technical, and supervisory positions at Air Force bases around the country during a period of racial unrest and discrimination, withstanding all bias because of her color and the injustice and inequality perpetrated against women. She was honorably discharged in 1963. She is a member of the Shrewsbury Avenue A.M.E. Zion Church Red Bank, NJ, Camden District, New Jersey Conference of the North Eastern Episcopal District.
Mr. Reginald S. Owens, Captain, served in the United States Army from 1977 until 1986. After completing Officer Candidate School at Fort Moore in Georgia, he was commissioned as a Second Lieutenant Radio Signal Officer. While serving his country, Lieutenant Owens received the Army Commendation Medal and the Army Achievement Medal. He was Honorably Discharged in 1986 with the rank of Captain. He has been a member of Greater Centennial A.M.E. Zion Church, Mount Vernon, NY, for over 30 years. Greater Centennial is in the New York City District, New York Conference of the North Eastern Episcopal District.
Mr. Leon Roberson, Sr., Staff Sergeant, served in the United States Army during the Korean War and the United States Army Reserve as a Squad Leader from 1952 until 1991. For his loyal and devoted service, he received the Combat Infantry Badge. He is a member of Nazarene A. M. E. Zion Church/Citronelle, AL, where he attends service faithfully every Sunday and serves as a Trustee and a member of the Men of Zion. Nazarene A.M.E. Zion Church is part of the West Alabama Conference of the Alabama-Florida Episcopal District.
In Memory of Mr. Melvin Rochester, Sr., Sergeant (E4). Mr. Rochester served in the United States Army from 1954 through 1957. He completed basic training in Fort Lee, VA, and received orders to Fort Polk in Louisiana. He received an Honorable Discharge after serving at Fort Polk. After his discharge, he returned home and married Ms. Constance Watson, and together they raised their four children. He was born and raised in Hackensack, NJ, where he attended Varick Memorial A.M.E. Zion Church, Hackensack, NJ, until his death. He was the brother of the late Bishop Enoch B. Rochester. Varick Memorial is part of the Jersey City District, New Jersey Conference of the North Eastern Episcopal District.
Mr. Leverett Russell, Jr., Petty Officer Third Class, received an Honorable Discharge from the United States Navy after serving from 1960 to 1966. He was a Dental Technician as well as a Field Medical Service Technician. He received the Good Conduct Medal while enlisted and during the Vietnam Era. Mr. Russell is a devoted member of the Shrewsbury Avenue A.M.E. Zion Church, Red Bank, NJ, Camden District, New Jersey Annual Conference of the North Eastern Episcopal District.
Rev. Robert L. Shuford, Senior Master Sargeant, Retired, is a United States Air Force veteran as a transportation specialist. He rendered 22 years of faithful service during campaigns from the Vietnam War to Operation Desert Shield. He retired with an Honorable Discharge. He is the Pastor of Mount Zion A.M.E. Zion Church, Wetumpka, AL, East Montgomery District, Central Alabama Conference of the Alabama-Florida Episcopal District.
Mr. Territo Mark Steward, Corporal, Specialist Fourth Class, served as a Supply and Weapons Specialist in the United States Army. He served in Operation Restore Hope in Somalia (1993-94). He was honorably discharged in 1996, receiving Good Conduct, Army Achievement, and Marine Exploration Medals. He is a member of the Shrewsbury Avenue A.M.E. Zion Church, Red Bank, New Jersey, New Jersey Conference of the North Eastern Episcopal District.
Rev. Dr. Mary Louise Thompson, Corporal, Specialist Fourth Class, served in the United States Army in the Women's Army Corps from 1962 until 1965 as an Occupational Therapy Specialist. She received an Honorable Discharge for her loyal service. Dr. Thompson is a native of Pittsburgh, PA, and earned six degrees: Ph.D., D.D, M.Div., M.A., BS, and an Associate Arts. She attended Mercer County Community College, Trenton State College, Rider University, Lutheran Theological Seminary, Masters International School of Divinity, and Newburgh Theological Seminary. Dr. Thompson is a Supernumerary Minister at St. Paul A.M.E. Zion Church, Ewing, NJ, Camden District, New Jersey Conference of the North Eastern Episcopal District.
[i] History.com Editors, Veterans Day 2023, Retrieved on October 10, 2023, from https://www.history.com/topics/holidays/history-of-veterans-day.
[ii] Ibid.
[iv] Ibid.
[v] Richard Gergel, Unexampled Courage: The Blinding of Sgt. Isaac Woodard and the Awakening of President Harry S. Truman and Judge J. Waties Waring (Sarah Crichton Books) 2019.
[vi] Alicia Mercedes, Press Statement: NAACP Commemorates 75th Anniversary of the Desegregation of US Armed Forces, July 26, 2023. Retrieved October 10, 2023, from https://naacp.org/articles/naacp-commemorates-75th-anniversary-desegregation-us-armed-forces.
NAACP, Resolution: In Recognition of the Role of Black Veterans in the Civil Rights Movement, 2009. Retrieved on October 10, 2023 from https://naacp.org/resources/recognition-role-black-veterans-civil-rights-movement.
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